In this series, I discuss the material proof of slavery in the Roman Empire. See part I on housing and part II on art.
CW: topics discussed in this series include slavery and has mentions violence (physical, sexual and psychological).
Shackles, Collars and Bullae
The use of shackles and such present both a physical reality and a symbolical one. In ancient Rome, slavery could be marked by various means. The most common of these was the use of different shackles, but in later also collars and identity discs were used, and for severe misconduct, slaves could be housed in ergastula (Thompson, 2003, 217). Of these, (other than of the above discussed ergastula) there is some archaeological proof, whereas of other means used (i.e. facial tattooing and semirasus [Thompson, 2003, 241]) there is necessarily no archaeological evidence. Thus, the focus here needs to be on physical objects of restraints, rather than of other means of signifying slavery. It is worth noting, however, that rather few shackles have been found in Italy (Thompson, 2003, 221).
However, two iron rings that have been interpreted as slave fetters have been found in Apollonia (Bulgaria), and a similar finding has been made in Pelion (Selca) and in Italy. The latter ones were dedicated to former slaves (Thompson, 2003, 222). This, then, suggests that shackles, when attached to the slave, signified enslavement, but could also be a symbol of gaining freedom. Thus, the relationship between a slave and their shackles might be a rather complex one, representing both slavery, and in some cases, freedom through manumission.
Evidence of shackles has also been found in tombstones, i.e. from Amphipolis, in which a partially remaining inscription tells that the buried former slave had become a slave dealer (Thompson, 2003, 223). This finding highlights the manner in which slaves could sometimes progress into positions of power after manumission, suggesting the complex nature of power dynamics in the Roman society. However, the tombstone also features slaves with neck chains carrying an amphora and cauldrons, which refers to trade (Thompson, 2003, 222). This, then, provides proof of some slaves being a part of trade arrangements. Furthermore, the decision to incorporate shackles as marks of slavery can be seen as further proof of how central an element of slave life shackles could be.
Findings from the Mediterranean and Celtic words are evidence of slave trade and transport from the regions to the Empire (Thompson, 2003, 222). Indeed, further evidence of shackles has been found in the Celtic world, i.e. the neck shackles found close to Cambridgeshire and Canterbury, Lacoste and Bavaria, but these have also been found in Rome and pictured in Roman art (Thompson, 2003, 225-7). The varying types of shackles – neck shackles and fetters – suggest different means of transporting slaves, and some of them can be linked to road-transport whereas others suggest confinement or transport through water. Shackles, then, seem to be connected to both slave transport and to some slave labour. The multitude of shackle types (i.e. Chalon-, Bengel-, Bavay-, and Archeau-type fetters and manacles [Thompson, 2003, 228-37]) can also be seen as suggestive of how important shackling was to the slave society.
Collars (often made of bronze) dating to late Imperial times have been found, both inscribed metal bands and uninscribed collars with bullae – an inscribed metal plate – attached to them (Thompson, 2003, 238). The use of collars and bullae has been suggested as the manner of marking slaves after Constantinus prohibited facial tattooing, and indeed, chi-rho marks found in some of the collars point to Christian ownership (Thompson, 2003, 228-37). Thus, change of religion changed the lies of slaves, too, not just the free population.
A Zoninus collar
Bibliography
Bradley, K. (1994), Slavery and Society at Rome, Cambridge.
Bryant, E. K. (2016), Paul and the Rise of the Slave: Death and Resurrection of the Oppressed in the Epistle to the Romans, Leiden/ Boston.
George, M. (2011), ‘Slavery and Roman material culture’, in K. Bradley and P. Cartledge (ed.), The Cambridge World History of Slavery: The Ancient Mediterranean World, Cambridge, 385-413.
Scheidel, W. (2012), ‘Slavery’, in W. Scheidel (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy, Cambridge, 89-113.
‘The Projecta Cascet’, British Museum, https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?assetId=36296001&objectId=59394&partId=1. Accessed 7 April 2020.
Thompson, F. H. (2003), The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery, London.
Trimble, J. (2016), ‘The Zoninus Collar and the archaeology of Roman slavery’, American Journal of Archaeology 120.3: 447-72.